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At its most basic level, a is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices that communicate with each other to share hardware, software, and storage resources. These networks are categorized based on their scale:

Transmits data as light pulses through high-quality glass or plastic strands. It provides massive bandwidth, zero electromagnetic interference, and incredibly low attenuation over vast distances. Unguided Media (Wireless)

┌──────────────────────────┐ │ Data Conversion │ └────────────┬─────────────┘ │ ┌───────────────┴───────────────┐ ▼ ▼ ┌──────────────────┐ ┌──────────────────┐ │ Digital-to- │ │ Digital-to- │ │ Digital │ │ Analog │ │ (Encoding) │ │ (Modulation) │ └─────────┬────────┘ └─────────┬────────┘ │ │ ┌───────┼───────┐ ┌───────┼───────┐ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ NRZ RZ Manchester ASK FSK PSK Digital-to-Digital Encoding At its most basic level, a is a

: Omnidirectional waves used for long-distance, multicast communications like Wi-Fi and cellular networks.

Handles node-to-node data transfer and error detection (framing, MAC addressing). Architectural Hierarchy: The Layered Model Translates

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: A deep dive into why signals fail, covering attenuation (loss of energy), distortion (change in signal shape), and noise (random interference). Architectural Hierarchy: The Layered Model covering attenuation (loss of energy)

Translates, encrypts, and compresses data for the application layer.

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